教科书为《Worlds Together, Worlds Apart》第六版，主编来自普林斯顿大学。

Challenge yourself！

第一章：Becoming Human

Thinking about Exchange Networks and Human Evolution.

Across several million years, the hominin ancestors of humans, especially Homo erectus, and then Homo sapiens, migrated out of Africa. What role did evolution play in making it possible for our hominin ancestors and then Homo sapiens to migrate across the globe?

关于交换网络与人类进化的思考。经过几百万年的时间，人类的远古祖先，尤其是直立人、然后是智人，迁移出了非洲。进化在使我们的古人类祖先以及智人跨越全球的迁徙成为可能的过程中扮演了什么角色？

Thinking about the Environment and Human Evolution.

Climate change and environmental conditions have played a recurring role in the narrative recounted in this chapter. In what specific ways did the climate change, and in what specific ways did the environment help shape the evolution of humans and influence the shift from hunting and gathering to settled agriculture?

关于环境与人类进化的思考。在本章的叙述中，气候变化和环境条件一再发挥作用。气候变化是以什么样的特定方式发生的，环境又是以什么样的特定方式影响着人类的进化，影响着从狩猎和采集到定居农业的转变？

Thinking about Changing Gender Relationships and the Agricultural Revolution.

Some scholars have argued that the hunting and gathering ways of life for both Homo erectus and Homo sapiens allowed women——biologically, through their lactation and child-rearing, and calorically, through their dominant role as gatherers——to make a larger and more significant contribution to their communities than their male counterparts did. In what ways might the development of settled agriculture have ushered in a shift in these gender roles?

关于转变的性别关系与农业革命的思考。一些学者认为，直立人和智人的狩猎和采集生活方式使得女性ーー在生物学上，通过哺乳和育儿；在热量方面，通过作为采集者的主导角色ーー对社区做出了比男性更大、更重要的贡献。定居农业的发展以何种方式导致了上述性别角色的转变？

第二章：Rivers, Cities, and First States, 3500–2000 BCE

Thinking about River-Basin Societies and the Environment.

Human interaction with the environment——including climate, geography, the characteristics of the rivers, and the continued cultivation of crops and herds——played a significant role in shaping each early river-basin community. Describe ways that these environmental factors influenced the unique characteristics of each river-basin society.

关于大河流域社会与环境问题的思考。人类与环境的相互作用——包括气候、地理、河流特征、农牧业的持续发展——对早期流域群落的形成起到了重要作用。描述这些环境因素如何影响每个流域社会的独特性。

Thinking about Exchange Networks among Early River-Basin Societies.

Carnelian from the Indus region buried in elite tombs of Egypt; lapis lazuli from the region of modern-day Afghanistan on necklaces adorning Harappan necks; shell from the Indus floodplain inlaid on Mesopotamian grave goods——these examples provide evidence of how trade in raw materials bound river-basin societies together in the third millennium BCE. What routes might such goods have traveled? What does this exchange of commodities suggest about other types of exchange that may have been taking place between these river-basin societies?

关于早期流域社会交换网络的思考。来自印度河地区的玛瑙石埋葬在埃及的精英墓穴中; 来自现代阿富汗地区的青金石镶嵌在哈拉帕人的颈项上; 来自印度河泛滥平原的贝壳镶嵌在美索不达米亚的墓葬物品上ーー这些例子提供了公元前第三个千年原材料贸易如何将河流流域社会联系在一起的证据。这些货物走的是什么路线？这种商品交换对这些流域社会之间可能发生的其他类型的交换有何启示？

Thinking about Changing Power Relationships in River-Basin Societies.

From 3500 to 2000 BCE, as societies developed in the river basins of Mesopotamia, Egypt, South Asia, and East Asia, more intensive cultivation brought agricultural surpluses that ushered in a wide range of impacts. Explain, with examples from each of the river-basin societies, how food surpluses led to job specialization, wealth accumulation, and the resulting social hierarchies.

关于变化中的大河流域社会的权力关系的思考。从公元前3500年到公元前2000年，随着美索不达米亚、埃及、南亚和东亚的河流流域的社会发展，更加集约的耕作带来了农业盈余，带来了广泛的影响。用每个流域社会的例子来解释，食物过剩如何导致工作专业化，财富积累，以及由此产生的社会等级。

第三章：Nomads, Territorial States, and Microsocieties, 2000–1200 BCE

Thinking about Environmental Impacts and Territorial States.

Around 2000 BCE, a series of environmental disasters helped destroy the societies that had thrived in parts of Afro-Eurasia in the third millennium BCE. What were the short-term and long-term impacts of these environmental troubles? How did they influence the movement of peoples and the formation of territorial states in the second millennium BCE?

关于环境影响与领土国家的思考。公元前2000年左右，一系列的环境灾难摧毁了公元前第三个千年在亚非欧部分地区繁荣发展的社会。这些环境问题的短期和长期影响是什么？在公元前第二个千年，它们是如何影响人民的迁徙和领土国家的形成的？

Thinking about Transformation &Conflict and Territorial States.

The second millennium BCE witnessed large-scale migrations of nomadic peoples who brought with them their domesticated horses and their chariot technology. These people are referred to by scholars as Indo-Europeans, largely on the basis of their languages. Contrast the impact of migrations into Southwest Asia (Anatolia and Mesopotamia), Egypt, South Asia, and East Asia. To what extent did conflict play a role in the impact of Indo-European-language speakers on the formation of territorial states?

关于转型、冲突与领土国家的思考。公元前第二个千年见证了游牧民族的大规模迁徙，他们带来了驯化的马和战车技术。这些人被学者称为印欧人，主要是基于他们的语言。对比移民到西亚(安纳托利亚和美索不达米亚)、埃及、南亚和东亚的影响。冲突在印欧语系民族对领土国家形成的影响中扮演了怎样的一个角色？

Thinking about Interconnection &Divergence and Territorial States.

While territorial states formed in Egypt, Mesopotamia, South Asia, and East Asia, microsocieties formed in the South Pacific and in the Aegean Sea. What factors influenced whether a region might host a territorial state as opposed to a microsociety? What areas of the planet were still worlds apart? What ways of life continued to predominate in those worlds apart from the territorial states and microsocieties discussed in this chapter?

关于互联互异与领土国家的思考。领土国家形成于埃及、美索不达米亚、南亚和东亚，微型社会形成于南太平洋和爱琴海。什么因素影响一个地区是否可能拥有一个领土国家而不是一个微型社会？地球上还有哪些区域仍然与世隔绝？除了本章所讨论的领土国家和微型社会之外，还有哪些生活方式在这些世界中继续占主导地位？

第四章：First Empires and Common Cultures in Afro-Eurasia, 1250–325 BCE

Thinking about Power Relationships and the Formation of Empires.

From 1250 to 325 BCE, several regional empires with centralized rule developed: in Southwest Asia, the Neo-Assyrians and then the Persians established tightly controlled empires; in East Asia, the Zhou achieved loose political unification; and a culturally integrated people thrived in South Asia. Compare the use of military force and its relationship to political centralization in each of these cases. How does religion help bring unification?

关于权力关系与帝国形成的思考。从公元前1250年到公元前325年，几个拥有中央集权统治的地区性帝国发展起来: 在西亚，新亚述和波斯建立了紧密控制的帝国; 在东亚，周王朝实现了松散的政治统一; 在南亚，一个文化融合的民族兴旺发达。比较每一种情况下使用军事力量及其与政治集权的关系。宗教如何帮助带来统一？

Thinking about the Environment and the Formation of Empires.

Just as climate change around 2000 BCE contributed to the demise of earlier societies, prolonged drought around 1200 BCE again brought dramatic changes to many areas. Compare the environmental crises in Egypt, Southwest Asia, and East Asia in the late second millennium BCE and their results, especially with respect to empire formation.

关于环境与帝国形成的思考。正如公元前2000年左右的气候变化导致早期社会的消亡一样，公元前1200年左右的长期干旱再次给许多地区带来了巨大的变化。比较埃及，西亚和东亚在公元前二千纪后期的环境危机及其结果，特别是关于帝国的形成。

Thinking about Exchange Networks and the Formation of Empires.

While this chapter focuses on the formation of empires, the majority of the world's people lived outside or on the fringes of these empires. The Sea Peoples, after disrupting the Hittites, Greeks, and Egyptians, settled down on the coast of Southwest Asia and became the Philistines; the Phoenicians expanded their trade across the Mediterranean; the Greeks effectively resisted Persian authority; and Jewish Israelites founded a kingdom centered on monotheism. Which had the most significant impact on human history: the centralized empires or the peoples on the fringes and beyond? Why?

关于交换网络与帝国形成的思考。虽然这一章的重点是帝国的形成，世界上的大多数人生活在这些帝国的外围或边缘。在扰乱了赫梯人、希腊人和埃及人之后，海上民族在西亚海岸定居下来，变成了腓力斯丁人; 腓尼基人扩大了他们在地中海的贸易; 希腊人有效地抵抗了波斯人的统治; 犹太人建立了一神教为中心的王国。哪一组对人类历史产生了最重大的影响: 是中央集权的帝国，还是处于边缘地带的人民？为什么？

第五章：Worlds Turned Inside Out, 1000–350 BCE

Thinking about Transformation & Conflict and the Axial Age.

In the first millennium BCE across Afro-Eurasia, Axial Age thinkers developed radical new ideas in response to their respective political and cultural situations. In what ways did Axial Age thinkers in East Asia (Confucius and Master Lao), South Asia (Mahavira and the Buddha), and the Mediterranean (naturalist philosophers and Socrates) address the unique transformations and conflicts that were taking place where they lived? How do Zoroaster of Persia and the Jewish prophets of Israel, discussed in Chapter 4, fit this model?

关于转型、冲突与轴心时代的思考。在公元前第一个千年，横跨亚非欧大陆，轴心时代的思想家们针对各自的政治和文化状况发展出了激进的新思想。东亚的(孔子和老子)、南亚的(摩诃毗罗和佛陀)和地中海的(自然派哲学家和苏格拉底)轴心时代思想家以何种方式解决他们生活的地方正在发生的独特的转变和冲突？在第四章讨论的波斯的琐罗亚斯德和以色列的犹太先知，如何适用于这个模型？

Thinking about Worlds Together, Worlds Apart and the Axial Age.

From the mid-second through the mid-first millennium BCE, "second-generation" societies developed in Eastern Zhou China, the Ganges plain of South Asia, and the Mediterranean, while parts of South America, Mesoamerica, and sub-Saharan Africa birthed their first complex societies. What are the differences between the second-generation societies of Afro-Eurasia and the first complex societies elsewhere, and what might account for these very different, yet contemporary, developments across the globe?

关于合与分的世界和轴心时代的思考。从公元前二千纪中叶到公元前一千纪中叶，“第二代”社会在中国东周、南亚的恒河平原和地中海地区发展起来，而南美、中美洲和撒哈拉以南非洲的部分地区则诞生了他们的最初的复杂社会。亚非欧大陆的第二代社会和其他地方的第一代复杂社会之间有什么区别，以及什么可以解释全球范围内这些非常不同但同时代的发展？

Thinking about Changing Power Relationships and the Axial Age.

Axial Age thinkers in East Asia, South Asia, and the Mediterranean offered challenges to both political and social traditions. How did the innovative ideas of thinkers such as Confucius, the Buddha, and Socrates contest and help reshape power relationships ranging from the political to the familial?

关于变化中的权力关系与轴心时代的思考。东亚、南亚和地中海地区的轴心时代思想家们向政治和社会传统提出了挑战。诸如孔子、佛陀和苏格拉底等思想家的创新思想如何帮助重塑从政治到家庭的权力关系？

第六章：Shrinking the Afro-Eurasian World, 350 BCE–100 CE

Thinking about Crossing Borders and Shrinking the Afro-Eurasian World.

Alexander's conquests and the resulting Hellenistic kingdoms of his successors brought about a never-before-seen cultural unity across huge swaths of Afro-Eurasia. To what extent was this cultural diffusion——comparable in some ways to the globalization or “Americanization” of culture around the world in modern times——a positive development? In what ways might it have been seen by those living through it as a negative development?

关于跨越边界、缩小亚非欧世界的思考。亚历山大的征服和随之而来的他的继任者的希腊王国在亚非欧大陆的广大地区带来了前所未见的文化统一。这种文化扩散在多大程度上是一种积极的发展ーー在某种程度上可与现代世界文化的全球化或“美国化”相媲美？生活在其中的人会从哪些方面将其视为一种消极的发展？

Thinking about Transformation & Conflict and Shrinking the Afro-Eurasian World.

Alexander and his successors brought about unity initially by brutal conquest, then later through diplomatic strategies and the spread of Hellenistic ideas. Likewise, as the conquest of Kalinga demonstrated, Ashoka brutally conquered territories before his change of heart and promotion of dhamma. Compare and contrast the role of military conflict and cultural movements (like Hellenism and dhamma) in bringing unity to the Hellenistic world and South Asia.

关于亚非欧世界转型、冲突与缩小的思考。亚历山大和他的继承者们最初通过野蛮的征服，后来通过外交战略和希腊思想的传播，实现了统一。同样，正如征服羯陵伽所表明的那样，阿育王在改变心意并推崇佛法之前，残酷地征服了许多领土。比较和对比军事冲突和文化运动(如希腊化和正法)在希腊化世界和南亚带来团结方面的作用。

Thinking about Worlds Together, Worlds Apart and Shrinking the Afro-Eurasian World.

The long-distance trade routes known as the Silk Roads, and sometimes the Incense Roads, brought intensified interactions among societies across Afro-Eurasia in the last centuries BCE. Which societies were closely involved in this exchange? Which appear to have been less involved? What accounts for these regions' involvement, or lack thereof, in Silk Road exchange?

关于合与分的世界和缩小亚非欧世界的思考。在公元前的最后几个世纪，被称为丝绸之路的长途贸易路线、有时是熏香之路，加强了亚非欧大陆社会之间的互动。哪些社会密切参与了这种交流？哪些看起来参与程度较低？是什么原因导致这些地区在丝绸之路交流中的参与或缺乏参与？

第七章：Han Dynasty China and Imperial Rome, 300 BCE–300 CE

Thinking about Worlds Together, Worlds Apart and Globalizing Empires.

In the six centuries between 300 BCE and 300 CE, the Han dynasty and imperial Rome united huge populations and immense swaths of territory not only under their direct control but also under their indirect influence. In what ways did this expansive unity at each end of Afro-Eurasia have an impact on the connections between these two empires? In what ways did these two empires remain worlds apart?

关于合与分的世界和全球化帝国的思考。在公元前300年到公元前300年的六个世纪里，汉朝和罗马帝国统一了庞大的人口和大片的领土，不仅在他们的直接控制之下、而且在他们的间接影响之下。亚非欧大陆两端的这种广阔的统一，在哪些方面影响了这两个帝国之间的联系？这两个帝国在哪些方面保持着天壤之别？

Thinking about Changing Power Relationships and Globalizing Empires.

Both the Han dynasty and the Roman Empire developed new models for heightened authoritarian control placed in the hands of a single ruler. In what ways did this authoritarian control at the top shape power relationships at all levels of these two societies? What were some potential challenges to this patriarchal, centralized control?

关于变化中的权力关系和全球化帝国的思考。汉朝和罗马帝国都发展出了新的模式，加强了单一统治者手中的威权主义控制。在这两个社会的各个层面，这种权力主义控制是如何塑造权力关系的呢？这种家长式的集中控制有哪些潜在的挑战？

Thinking about Transformation & Conflict and Globalizing Empires.

Both the Han dynasty and the Roman Empire faced intense threats along their borders. In what ways did Han interactions with nomadic groups like the Xiongnu and Roman interactions with Parthians to the east and Germans and Goths to the north affect these globalizing empires?

关于转型、冲突与全球化帝国的思考。汉朝和罗马帝国都面临着边境地区的严重威胁。汉族与游牧民族如 匈奴、罗马人与东方帕提亚人、北方日耳曼人和哥特人之间的互动是如何影响这些全球化帝国的？

第八章：The Rise of Universalizing Religions, 300–600 CE

Thinking about Crossing Borders and Universalizing Religions.

Why did borders seem to infuse vitality into Christianity and Buddhism in the fourth through sixth centuries CE? Which religions in this period did not seem to cross borders and why? What effect did this have on those religions?

关于跨越国界的普世宗教的思考。为什么在公元四世纪到六世纪，国界似乎为基督教和佛教注入了活力？在这一时期，哪些宗教似乎没有跨越国界，为什么？这对那些宗教有什么影响？

Thinking about Changing Power Relationships and Universalizing Religions.

Universalizing religions, like Christianity and Buddhism, were successful in part because of their diverse personalized appeal to men and women, rich and poor, and the upper and lower classes. How might this diverse appeal enable a universalizing religion like Christianity to undermine and alter traditional power relationships? In what ways did Buddhism do the same?

关于变化中的权力关系与普世宗教的思考。普世宗教，如基督教和佛教，之所以成功，部分原因在于它们对男人和女人、富人和穷人以及上层和下层阶级的不同的个性化吸引力。这种多样化的吸引力是如何使得像基督教这样普世宗教去破坏和改变传统的权力关系的呢？佛教以何种方式做到了同样的事？

Thinking about Worlds Together, Worlds Apart and Universalizing Religions.

Why did universalizing religions like Christianity and Buddhism develop in some parts of the world but not in others in the period 300 to 600 CE? How did these universalizing religions allow for continuity in Eurasia, even as empires fell away? In the "worlds apart", how might the lack of universalizing religion have influenced continuity, as political entities rose and fell over time?

关于合与分的世界与普世宗教的思考。为什么公元300年至600年间，普世宗教，如基督教和佛教在世界上的某些地方发展起来，而在其他地方却没有？这些普世宗教是如何在欧亚大陆延续下去的，即使帝国已经衰落？在“孤立的世界”中，宗教缺乏普世性会如何影响其连续性，并随着时间因政治实体的推移而起伏？

第九章：New Empires and Common Cultures, 600–1000 CE

Thinking about Crossing Borders and Faith & Empire.

As Islam spread outside its initial Arabian context, the faith underwent a range of developments. As Christianity and Buddhism continued to spread, these traditions underwent changes as well. Compare the shifts that took place within Islam as it expanded (600——1000 CE) with those within Buddhism and Christianity, not only in their earlier periods (see Chapter 8) but also during the period from 600 to 1000 CE.

关于跨越国界与信仰和帝国的思考。随着伊斯兰教在最初的阿拉伯本土之外的传播，这种信仰经历了一系列的发展。随着基督教和佛教的不断传播，它们的传统也发生了变化。将伊斯兰教内部因扩张发生的变化(公元600ー1000年间)与佛教和基督教内部的变化——不仅在他们的早期时期(见第8章) ，而且在公元600年至1000年间的变化——做对比。

Thinking about Changing Power Relationships and Faith & Empire.

As each of the empires discussed in this chapter matured, divisions developed within the faiths that initially had helped to bring unity to their respective regions. In the Abbasid world, a split developed between Sunni and Shiite Muslims. In Tang China, Buddhism and Confucianism vied for political influence. Christendom divided into the Roman Catholic west and the Greek Orthodox east. What was the exact nature of each religious disagreement? How do these divisions compare in terms of the root of the internal rifts and their impact in the political realm?

关于变化中的权力关系与信仰和帝国的思考。随着本章所讨论的每一个帝国的成熟，最初帮助各自地区实现统一的宗教内部出现了分裂。在阿拔斯世界，逊尼派穆斯林和什叶派穆斯林之间出现了分裂。在中国唐代，佛教和儒教争夺政治影响力。基督教世界分为罗马天主教西部和希腊东正教东部。每个宗教分歧的确切性质是什么？就内部分歧的根源及其在政治领域的影响而言，这些分歧如何比较？

Thinking about Worlds Together, Worlds Apart.

The empires described in this chapter reached across wide swaths of territory and interacted with vibrant societies on their margins. The peoples of Europe struggled with the onslaught of the fierce Vikings. The peoples of Tang China interacted with neighboring Korea and Japan. How does the interaction of Europe and the Vikings compare with the relations of the Tang and the external influences that they experienced? To what extent did the Abbasids contend with similar exchanges?

关于世界的合与分的思考。本章所描述的帝国横跨广阔的疆域，与边缘地带充满活力的社会互动。欧洲人民在猛烈的维京人的攻击下挣扎。唐朝时期的中国人与邻国朝鲜和日本有着密切的联系。欧洲与维京人的相互影响与唐朝的对外关系相比如何、他们所经历的外界影响相比如何？阿拔斯王朝在多大程度上参与竞争了类似的互动？

第十章：Becoming “The World,” 1000–1300 CE

Thinking about Worlds Together, Worlds Apart.

From 1000 to 1300 CE, a range of social and political developments contributed to the consolidation of four cultural spheres that still exist today: Europe, the Islamic world, India, and China. In what ways did these spheres interact with one another? In what ways was each sphere genuinely distinct from the others? To what extent were sub-Saharan Africa and the Americas folded into these spheres and with what result?

关于世界的合与分的思考。从公元1000年到公元1300年，一系列的社会和政治发展促进了四个至今仍然存在的文化圈的巩固: 欧洲，伊斯兰世界，印度和中国。这些文化圈是通过什么方式相互作用的呢？每个文化圈在哪些方面真正有别于其他文化圈？撒哈拉以南非洲和美洲在多大程度上融入了这些文化圈，结果如何？

Thinking about Transformation & Conflict and Becoming the World.

As the four cultural spheres of Afro-Eurasia consolidated, shocking examples of conflict between them began to take place. Whether from Pope Urban II’s call in 1095 to reclaim the “holy land” from Muslims or the Mongol Hulagu’s brutal sack of Baghdad in 1258, this period was marked by large-scale warfare between rival cultural spheres. To what extent was such conflict inevitable? In what ways did conflict transform the groups involved?

关于转型、冲突与世界成型的思考。随着亚非欧大陆四大文化圈的整合，它们之间令人震惊的冲突开始发生。无论是1095年教皇乌尔班二世号召从穆斯林手中夺回“圣地”，还是1258年蒙古人旭烈兀残酷洗劫巴格达，这一时期的特点都是敌对文化圈之间的大规模战争。这种冲突在多大程度上是不可避免的？冲突以何种方式改变了所涉及的群体？

Thinking about Crossing Borders and Becoming the World.

Major innovations facilitated economic exchange in the Indian Ocean and in Song China. The magnetic needle compass, better ships, and improved maps shrank the Indian Ocean to the benefit of traders. Similarly, paper money in Song China changed the nature of commerce. How did these developments shift the axis of Afro-Eurasian exchange? What evidence suggests that bodies of water and the routes across them became more significant than overland exchange routes in binding together Afro-Eurasia? What might be the longer-term implications of these developments?

关于跨越国界与世界成型的思考。重大创新促进了印度洋和宋代中国的经济交流。磁性指南针、更好的船舶和改进的地图让印度洋“缩小”了，使贸易商受益。同样，宋代纸币改变了商业的性质。这些发展如何改变了亚非欧大陆交换的轴心？有什么证据表明，在将亚非欧大陆连接在一起的方面，水域和穿越它们的路线变得比陆上交换路线更为重要？这些事态发展的长期影响可能是什么？

第十一章：Crises and Recovery in Afro-Eurasia, 1300–1500

Thinking about Exchange Networks.

By the fourteenth century, most of the Afro-Eurasian landmass was bound together by multiple exchange networks that functioned on many levels—political, cultural, and commercial. How did these exchange networks facilitate the spread of the plague? In what ways did the spread of the Black Death correspond with and diverge from existing political, cultural, and commercial networks?

关于交换网络的思考。到了14世纪，大部分亚非欧大陆被多种多样的交换网络连接在一起，这些交换网络在政治、文化和商业等多个层面发挥作用。这些交换网络如何促进鼠疫的传播？黑死病的传播在哪些方面与现存的政治、文化和商业网络相对应和背离？

Thinking about Changing Power Relationships.

Fourteenth-century famine and plague, and the accompanying political, economic, and natural crises, together triggered powerful, often differing, responses in western Europe, the Ottoman lands, and Ming China. How did men and women at different levels of society respond to the fourteenth-century crises? How did their responses reshape their societies? Pay special attention to the relationships among ordinary men and women, elites, and imperial bureaucracies in all three regions.

关于变化中的权力关系的思考。14世纪的饥荒和瘟疫，以及随之而来的政治、经济和自然危机，共同在西欧、奥斯曼帝国和明朝中国引发了强有力的、往往是不同的反应。社会各阶层的男女如何应对十四世纪的危机？他们的反应如何重塑了他们的社会？特别要注意这三个地区的平民男女、精英阶层和帝国官僚之间的关系。

Thinking about Environmental Impacts.

Climate change laid the groundwork for the devastation of the Black Death. What environmental developments in Europe, central Asia, and China set the stage for the Black Death?

关于环境影响的思考。气候变化为黑死病的破坏奠定了基础。欧洲、中亚和中国的环境发展为黑死病提供了什么样的舞台？

第十二章：Contact, Commerce, and Colonization, 1450–1600

Thinking about Exchange Networks and the Age of Exploration.

In the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, the densest trade networks and most powerful states remained centered in Asia. How did Columbus’s “discovery” of the New World alter the terms on which peoples across Afro-Eurasia interacted with one another? What commodities and trade networks brought peoples together, and on what terms? What new inequalities did those contacts create around the world?

关于交换网络与地理大发现的思考。在十五和十六世纪，最密集的贸易网络和最强大的国家仍然集中在亚洲。哥伦布对新大陆的“发现”如何改变了亚非欧大陆各地人民之间相互影响的条件？什么商品和贸易网络使各国人民联系在一起，以什么条件？这些接触在全世界造成了什么新的不平等？

Thinking about Changing Power Relationships and the Age of Exploration.

The effort to expand empires and trading networks differed substantially across Afro-Eurasia and the Americas in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries. How did men and women at all levels of society contribute to this expansion? How did that participation shape or reshape their societies? Pay particular attention to the relationship between lower classes and elites.

关于变化中的权力关系与地理大发现的思考。在十五和十六世纪，扩大帝国和贸易网络的努力在亚非欧大陆和美洲大陆之间有很大的不同。社会各阶层的男子和妇女如何促进这种扩展？这种参与是如何塑造或重塑其社会的？特别要注意下层阶级和精英阶层的关系。

Thinking about Environmental Impacts and the Age of Exploration.

The Columbian exchange led to demographic catastrophe and environmental transformation in the New World. Why did the indigenous populations of the Americas get sick so much more often than Europeans did? Why did the plants and animals of the New World increasingly come to resemble those of Afro-Eurasia?

关于环境影响与地理大发现的思考。哥伦布大交换导致了新大陆的人口灾难和环境变迁。为什么美洲的土著居民比欧洲人生病的频率更高？为什么新大陆的动植物越来越像亚非欧大陆的动植物？

第十三章：Worlds Entangled, 1600–1750

Thinking about Exchange Networks and World Trade.

How did silver, and then sugar, transform world trade? What political and cultural forces benefited from the development of long-distance trading networks? Which groups suffered and how? Contrast the effects of long-distance trade in major world regions.

关于交换网络与世界贸易的思考。白银和糖是如何改变世界贸易的？什么样的政治和文化力量受益于长途贸易网络的发展？哪些群体受害，又是如何受害的？对比远距离贸易对世界主要区域的影响。

Thinking about Changing Power Relationships and World Trade.

The seventeenth and eighteenth centuries witnessed the rise of new powers in England, Japan, and Russia, as well as regional powers on the west coast of Africa. Several established empires continued to expand but confronted powerful new challenges to their authority. How did leaders of the Ottoman, Mughal, and Qing Empires respond to challenges to their authority? What major challenges did they face? How would you characterize the new powers that emerged around the world in this period?

关于变化中的权力关系与世界贸易的思考。十七世纪和十八世纪见证了英格兰、日本和俄罗斯以及非洲西海岸地区新兴大国的崛起。一些已建立的帝国继续扩张，但面临着对其权威的新的强大挑战。奥斯曼帝国、莫卧儿帝国和清帝国的领导人如何回应对他们权威的挑战？他们面临的主要挑战是什么？你如何描述这一时期世界各地出现的新势力？

Thinking about the Impact of World Trade on Gender Relations.

The Atlantic slave trade wreaked havoc on sex ratios both in Africa and in the slavery-ridden societies of the New World because most enslaved Africans taken across the ocean were men. How did this affect social life on New World plantations? What strategies did African communities utilize to mitigate the loss of so many men? Elsewhere around the world, increased trade challenged established social hierarchies. How did ruling elites mobilize gender to reinforce their authority?

关于世界贸易对性别关系影响的思考。大西洋奴隶贸易对非洲和奴隶制盛行的新大陆社会的性别比例造成了严重破坏，因为跨越大洋的大多数非洲奴隶都是男人。这对新大陆种植园的社会生活有什么影响？非洲社区采取了哪些战略来减轻这么多人的损失？在世界其他地方，日益增长的贸易对既有的社会等级制度构成了挑战。统治精英是如何调用性别来加强他们的权威的？

第十四章：Cultures of Splendor and Power, 1500–1780

Thinking about Exchange Networks and Cultural Change.

How did increased exchanges of goods and ideas change established traditions? What institutions and ideas proved most hospitable to foreign influence, even in established cultures, and why? Which fields proved more resistant to outside ideas? Why were some regions more receptive to foreign influences than others were? Consider religion, natural science, and art.

关于交流网络与文化变迁的思考。商品和思想交流的增加是如何改变既有传统的？哪些制度和思想被证明对来自外部的影响最友好、即使在已构建完整的文化中，为什么？哪些领域被证明对外部思想更有抵抗力？为什么有些地区比其他地区更容易接受外来影响？考虑一下宗教、自然科学和艺术的情况。

Thinking about Changing Power Relationships and Cultural Change.

How did established cultures respond to the inclusion of the Americas in an increasingly integrated world? Which cultures flourished, and why? What relationship(s) can you see between new wealth and cultural change?

关于变化中的权力关系与文化变迁的思考。在一个日益一体化的世界中，既有文化如何应对美洲的融入？哪些文化繁荣昌盛，为什么？你能看到新财富和文化变迁之间的关系吗？

Thinking about Environmental Impacts and Cultural Change.

The isolation of the Americas and Oceania paved the way for ecological catastrophe when Europeans arrived. How, in turn, did ecological catastrophes leave indigenous cultures vulnerable? Consider the nature of religious change in the Americas and the Afro-Eurasian core regions and population movements in Australia.

关于环境影响与文化变迁的思考。当欧洲人到来时，美洲和大洋洲的孤立为生态灾难铺平了道路。反过来，生态灾难是如何让土著文化变得脆弱的呢？考虑美洲和亚非欧大陆核心区域的宗教变化性质以及澳大利亚的人口流动。

第十五章：Reordering the World, 1750–1850

Thinking about Exchange Networks and Sociopolitical Change.

How did established dynasties respond to pressures created by increased exchanges of goods, ideas, and peoples? To what degree did established elites respond by forging a partnership with “the people”? Who defined “the people,” and on what terms?

关于交换网络与社会政治变革的思考。历代王朝是如何应对日益增加的商品、思想和人民交流所带来的压力的？既有的精英在多大程度上与“人民”建立了伙伴关系？谁定义了“人民”，用什么术语？

Thinking about Changing Power Relationships and Sociopolitical Change.

What new kinds of political organizations emerged in this period? Where did new political systems take root, and where did established elites resist most successfully?

关于变化中的权力关系与社会政治变革的思考。这一时期出现了什么样的新型政治组织？新的政治制度在哪里扎根，既有的精英阶层在哪里抵抗得最为成功？

Thinking about Environmental Impacts and Sociopolitical Change.

Although new technologies only gradually transformed agriculture—by far the most common economic activity in the world—the spread of more intensive cultivation demanded considerable capital investment. How did the relationship between town and countryside change as a result? How did living conditions change in cities as their populations swelled?

关于环境影响与社会政治变革的思考。虽然新技术只是逐渐改变了农业——迄今为止，农业是世界上最普遍的经济活动——但更加集约化的耕作需要大量的资本投资。城乡关系是如何发生变化的？随着城市人口的膨胀，城市的生活条件发生了怎样的变化？

第十六章：Alternative Visions of the Nineteenth Century

Thinking about Exchange Networks and Alternative Visions.

How did people around the world respond to the major changes of the French, American, and industrial revolutions? What difference did proximity to the European and American “core” make?

关于交换网络与不同视角的思考。世界各地的人们如何应对法国、美国和工业革命的重大变化？接近欧洲和美国的“核心”有什么不同？

Thinking about Changing Power Relationships and Alternative Visions.

What kind of challenges did the new order provoke? What kinds of traditions did those challenges draw on, and what kind of success did they have?

关于变化中的权力关系和不同视角的思考。新秩序引发了什么样的挑战？这些挑战借鉴了什么样的传统，它们取得了什么样的成功？

Thinking about Gender and Alternative Visions.

Describe the role women played in millenarian protest movements during the nineteenth century, and explain the significance of gender to those movements.

关于性别与不同视角的思考。描述妇女在十九世纪千禧年运动中所扮演的角色，并解释性别对这些运动的重要性。

第十七章：Nations and Empires, 1850–1914

Thinking about Worlds Together, Worlds Apart and Nations & Empires.

Compare the eighteenth-century empires of Spain, Portugal, and Britain with the new empires arising in Africa at the end of the nineteenth century. What were the sources of their wealth and power? How and to what degree were colonial territories and economies integrated with their imperialist states?

关于合与分的世界和民族与帝国的思考。把十八世纪的西班牙、葡萄牙和大不列颠帝国与十九世纪末在非洲兴起的新殖民帝国相比较。他们财富和权力的来源是什么？殖民地领土和经济如何以及在多大程度上与其帝国主义国家融为一体？

Thinking about Changing Power Relationships and Nations & Empires.

How did the growth of western influence and Japanese power lay the basis for opposition movements in Africa and Asia? How did people respond to imperialism? Where was resistance most effective?

关于变化中的权力关系和民族与帝国的思考。西方影响力和日本力量的增长是如何为非洲和亚洲的反对运动奠定基础的？人们对帝国主义有什么反应？哪里的抵抗最有效？

Thinking about Environmental Impacts and Nations & Empires.

Describe the second industrial revolution and explain how it differed from the first industrial revolution. Pay special attention to the new technologies used in the late nineteenth century, especially the sources of power and new materials that were used.

关于环境影响和民族与帝国的思考。请描述第二次工业革命，并解释它与第一次工业革命有何不同。特别注意十九世纪后期使用的新技术，尤其是动力来源和使用的新材料。

第十八章：An Unsettled World, 1870–1914

Thinking about Crossing Borders and an Unsettled World.

How did mobility of different kinds unsettle established certainties in this period? Think in particular of the massive flight of farmers toward cities and the erosion of traditional social hierarchies; the prevalence of steamships and rail travel, which made long-distance journeys easier than ever before; and the emergence of the telephone and telegraph, which revolutionized communications.

关于跨越国界与不稳定的世界的思考。在这个时期，不同种类的迁移是如何扰乱既定事实的？特别要想想农民大量涌向城市和传统社会等级制度的削弱; 蒸汽船和铁路旅行的盛行，使长途旅行比以往任何时候都更容易; 电话和电报的出现，彻底改变了通信。

Thinking about Changing Power Relationships and an Unsettled World.

To what extent were challenges to western influence internal to the western tradition—the product of growing doubts and contradictions within the Enlightenment project—articulated by Europeans like Nietzsche and Freud? To what degree were they external to that tradition—a reaction against the massive concentration of wealth and power centered in the west and the values that supported western dominance?

关于变化中的权力关系与不稳定的世界的思考。西方传统内部对西方影响的挑战在多大程度上是由尼采和弗洛伊德等欧洲人所阐述的启蒙运动内部日益增长的怀疑和矛盾的产物？他们在多大程度上排斥这种传统ーー反对以西方为中心的财富和权力的大规模集中以及用以支撑西方主导地位的价值观？

Thinking about Women and Gender in an Unsettled World.

To what degree did the economic and technological breakthroughs of the nineteenth century improve women’s lives? To what extent were women able to make claims on governments in different parts of the world? How did ordinary women take control of their bodies and their lives, and how did feminists challenge patriarchal cultures?

关于不稳定的世界中的女性与性别问题思考。19世纪的经济和技术突破在多大程度上改善了妇女的生活？妇女在多大程度上能够向世界不同地区的政府提出要求？普通女性是如何控制自己的身体和生活的，女权主义者又是如何挑战父权文化的？

第十九章：Global Crisis, 1910–1939

Thinking about Transformation and Conflict and Visions of the Modern.

What was the relationship between war and progress in the early twentieth century? What new political, social, and cultural movements grew out of the Great War? Think in particular of the role of former soldiers in politics; the adaptation in peacetime of production practices developed for the war effort; and governments’ willingness and ability to regulate the economy and people’s everyday lives.

关于转型、冲突与现代视野的思考。在二十世纪早期，战争和进步之间的关系是什么？第一次世界大战带来了什么新的政治、社会和文化运动？特别要考虑退伍军人在政治中的作用; 和平时期为致力战争而发展的生产实践的适应性; 以及政府调节经济和人民日常生活的意愿和能力。

Thinking about Changing Power Relationships and Visions of the Modern.

What, if anything, was left in this period of the tradition of classical liberalism, which trusted markets to regulate themselves and believed progress would result when individuals pursued their own self-interest? What role did government intervention—in the economy and society—play for the three major traditions discussed in this chapter: liberal democratic, authoritarian, and anticolonial? How central was state intervention to their respective views of progress and modernity?

关于变化中的权力关系与现代视野的思考。如果有的话，那么古典自由主义的传统时期：即信任市场来调节自己、并且相信当个人追求自身利益时会取得进步，留下了什么？政府在经济和社会中的干预对本章所讨论的三大传统: 自由民主、威权主义和反殖民主义起了什么作用？国家干预对他们各自的进步和现代性观点的影响有多大？

Thinking about Gender and Visions of the Modern.

What role did women play in the social transformations of the early twentieth century, both as participants and as symbols? Pay special attention to the role of women workers in war production and, increasingly, in professional careers thereafter; to women consumers in an era of mass production; and to governments’ commitment to the ideal of gender equality and their (faltering) willingness to abide by that ideal.

关于性别与现代视野的思考。妇女在二十世纪早期的社会变革中既作为参与者又作为象征发挥了什么作用？特别注意妇女工人在战争生产中的作用，以及此后日益增加的职业生涯; 注意大规模生产时代的妇女消费者; 注意政府对两性平等理想的承诺及其遵守这一理想的(摇摆不定的)意愿。

第二十章：The Three-World Order, 1940–1975

Thinking about Worlds Together, Worlds Apart and the Three-World Order.

Explain how the collapse of a Europe-centered world changed how states interacted with one another. In what ways did the division of the globe into three rival worlds differ from the dominance of the European “great powers” that preceded it? Which world order do you think was more stable, the Europe-centered world or the three-world order that followed it? Do you think one system was more equitable than the other?

关于分与合的世界与三个世界秩序的思考。解释一个以欧洲为中心的世界的崩溃如何改变了国家之间的相互作用。将地球划分为三个对立的世界与之前欧洲“大国”的主导地位有什么不同？你认为哪种世界秩序更稳定，是以欧洲为中心的世界秩序，还是随之而来的三个世界秩序？你认为一种制度比另一种制度更公平吗？

Thinking about Changing Power Relationships and the Three-World Order.

Analyze Third World revolutionaries’ ability to alter the dynamic of the Cold War. Where do you think power was located in this period? To what degree did Washington and Moscow determine the course of world affairs, and to what degree were politicians in places like Cuba, Vietnam, and Algeria able to play the superpowers off against each other? How and to what degree were revolutionaries able to make claims on the First and Second Worlds for economic, political, or military assistance?

关于变化中的权力关系与三个世界秩序的思考。分析第三世界革命者改变冷战格局的能力。你认为这一时期的权力在哪里？华盛顿和莫斯科在多大程度上决定了世界事务的进程? 古巴、越南和阿尔及利亚等地的政治家在多大程度上能够挑拨两个超级大国之间的关系？革命者如何以及在何种程度上能够对第一和第二世界提出经济、政治或军事援助的要求？

Thinking about Environmental Impacts and the Three-World Order.

In this period, for the first time, organized groups set out to defend the environment. What sparked their protests? Where were those organizations most fully developed? Where was ecological devastation most extreme? What force or forces opposed environmentalists?

关于环境影响与三个世界秩序的思考。在这一时期，有组织的团体第一次开始保护环境。是什么引发了他们的抗议？这些组织发展最成熟的地方在哪里？生态破坏最严重的地方在哪里？什么力量或势力反对环保主义者？

第二十一章：Globalization, 1970–2000

Thinking about Worlds Together, Worlds Apart and Globalization.

How did globalization shape patterns of inequality? After the Cold War, trade, migration, and communications reshaped the terms on which peoples interacted with one another around the world. Industry, agriculture, culture, and the arts all linked peoples and regions together in different ways. Consider differences in all these domains. What kinds of inequalities were most significant?

关于世界的分与合与全球化的思考。全球化如何塑造了不平等的模式？冷战结束后，贸易、移民和通信重塑了世界各国人民相互交往的条件。工业、农业、文化和艺术都以不同的方式把各民族和各地区联系在一起。考虑所有这些领域的差异。什么类型的不平等是最重要的？

Thinking about Changing Power Relationships and Globalization.

What kind of resistance movements did globalization generate, both within the world’s wealthiest societies and elsewhere? How did the feminist, labor, and environmental reform movements resemble and differ from their predecessors? How did Hindu nationalism and religious conservatism differ from each other and from earlier nationalist and religious or pan movements?

关于变化中的权力关系与全球化的思考。全球化在世界上最富有的社会和其他地方产生了什么样的抵制运动？女权主义运动、劳工运动和环境改革运动与前人有何相似和不同？印度民族主义和宗教保守主义之间有什么不同，与早期的民族主义、宗教运动和泛主义运动又有什么不同呢？

Thinking about Environmental Impacts and Globalization.

Explain the relationship between globalization, climate change, and the environment. The consumption of water, oil, and other natural resources became major national and international issues in this period. How did the organization of agricultural and industrial production change, and what influence did those changes have on global warming, acid rain, and pollution? Identify efforts to limit damage to the environment and evaluate their success.

关于环境影响与全球化的思考。解释全球化、气候变化和环境之间的关系。水、石油和其他自然资源的消耗成为这一时期国内外的重大问题。农业和工业生产的组织是如何变化的，这些变化对全球变暖、酸雨和污染有什么影响？确定环境破坏进行限制的努力并评估其成效。

第二十二章：Twenty-First-Century Global Challenges, 2001–the Present

Thinking about Worlds Together, Worlds Apart and Twenty-First-Century Challenges.

Identify the political, technological, and economic forces that brought core regions of Europe, Asia, and the Americas into ever-closer contact, coming to resemble one another as never before, and the forces that excluded developing nations, especially in Africa and Latin America, from those networks of wealth, power, and influence.

关于分与合的世界和21世纪的挑战的思考。找出使欧洲、亚洲和美洲的核心地区出现更加紧密联系、前所未有地彼此相似的政治、技术和经济力量，以及将发展中国家，特别是非洲和拉丁美洲的发展中国家排除在这些财富、权力和影响力网络之外的力量。

Thinking about Environmental Impacts and Twenty-First-Century Challenges.

Describe the key causal factors driving global climate change and pandemic disease. To what degree are they connected and to what degree are they distinct phenomena?

关于环境影响与21世纪挑战的思考。描述驱动全球气候变化和大流行病的关键因素。它们在多大程度上相互联系，又在多大程度上相互区别？

Thinking about Changing Power Relationships and Cultural Change and Twenty-First-Century Challenges.

How has technological change, especially the emergence of computers and the internet, changed the transmission of culture worldwide? Where are the leading centers of the film and music industries located today?

关于变化中的权力关系和文化与21世纪挑战的思考。技术变革，尤其是计算机和互联网的出现，是如何改变了世界范围内的文化传播？今天电影和音乐产业的主要中心在哪里？